How the old FAT16 file system used in early MS-DOS and Windows PCs became increasingly inefficient as hard drives grew larger.

Key points

·         FAT16 had a limit on the number of disk clusters it could track because it used 16-bit entries in its file allocation table. As hard drive sizes increased, FAT16 had to use progressively larger cluster sizes to manage them.

·         A cluster is the smallest amount of disk space a file can occupy. Even a tiny file uses an entire cluster.

·         On larger FAT16 volumes:

o    A 512 MB partition could use 16 KB clusters.

o    A 1 GB or 2 GB partition could use 32 KB clusters.

o    Later versions could support 4 GB volumes using 64 KB clusters.

·         This created substantial waste space ("cluster slack"). For example, thousands of very small text files could consume hundreds of megabytes because each file occupied a full 32 KB cluster regardless of its actual size.

·         The irony was that buying a larger hard drive could make storage efficiency worse, meaning users lost more of the capacity they had paid for. The article notes that a 1 GB drive in the mid-1990s was extremely expensive, making this particularly frustrating.

The workaround

Users often partitioned their drives into several smaller volumes. Since FAT16's cluster-size limitation applied per partition, smaller partitions could use smaller clusters and waste less space. A 1 GB drive split into four 256 MB partitions could use 8 KB clusters instead of 32 KB clusters.

How it was fixed

·         Microsoft introduced FAT32 with Windows 95 OSR2 in 1996, greatly improving efficiency and allowing much smaller clusters for larger volumes.

·         FAT32 became mainstream with Windows 98.

·         Eventually, NTFS became the standard Windows file system. NTFS still has some cluster slack, but it is far more efficient and can even store some small files directly in the Master File Table (MFT) without allocating separate clusters.

Bottom line: FAT16's design forced cluster sizes to grow as disk sizes increased, causing significant storage waste. Users often had to partition drives to avoid losing capacity until FAT32 and later NTFS solved most of the problems.

MICROSOFT SHARES OFFICIAL WINDOWS 11 GAMING HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS GUIDE

Microsoft shares official Windows 11 gaming hardware requirements and recommendations guide

Introduction

Microsoft has shared a detailed guide about its hardware recommendations and requirements for a gaming PC on Windows 11 in 2026.

In this guide, we have listed minimum and recommended CPU and GPU specs for Gaming Pc’s

First up, we start with the processor and graphics cards. The company explains in brief how these components help, like for example, the CPU is responsible for handling game physics, logic, draw calls, among others, while the GPU is primarily there for processing all the graphics. It can also immensely help with GPU-based physics like PhysX as we showed recently.

Here are the official CPU and GPU minimum and recommended specs for gaming on Windows 11 in 2026:

Entry-level gaming (1080p, medium settings)

·         CPU: At least a modern quad-core like AMD Ryzen 5 5600 or Intel Core i5-12400

·         GPU: NVIDIA GTX 1660 Super or AMD Radeon RX 6600

Mid-range gaming (1440p, high settings)

·         CPU: 6-core or better, such as AMD Ryzen 5 7600 or Intel Core i5-13600K

·         GPU: NVIDIA RTX 3060 Ti / 4060 Ti or AMD Radeon RX 6700 XT

High-end/4K gaming

·         CPU: 8-core or better, like AMD Ryzen 7 7800X3D or Intel Core i7-13700K

·         GPU: NVIDIA RTX 4080 or AMD Radeon RX 7900 XTX

Monitor Recommendations

Speaking of monitors, here is Microsoft's guidance on how to purchase the ideal monitor for your gaming needs depending on factors like refresh rate, response times, and panel type. It explains:

Refresh rate (Hz): How many times the screen updates per second.

·         144 Hz is a solid baseline for smooth play.

·         165 Hz–240 Hz benefits competitive shooters or fast-action games.

Response time (ms): The time a pixel takes to change color.

·         1 ms–3 ms is ideal for gaming, reducing ghosting and motion blur during fast action.

Panel types:

·         IPS: Excellent color accuracy and wide viewing angles—great all-round choice.

·         VA: Deeper contrast and richer blacks, though slightly slower response than IPS.

·         OLED: Superb contrast and near-instant response,

Conclusion

Microsoft's guide contains more helpful recommendations and tips. You can check it out here on the company's official site.

To see whether your PC has the updated certificates

To see whether your PC has the updated certificates

 

To see whether your PC has the updated certificates, open a PowerShell window using administrator credentials and then run the following command:"

 

([System.Text.Encoding]::ASCII.GetString((Get-SecureBootUEFI db).bytes) -match 'Windows UEFI CA 2023')

 

If the response is True, you're up to date. If the response is False, you need a firmware update. 

 

"Another crucial Windows expiration date is right around the corner for more than a billion PCs. Here's what you need to do now. Last year's end-of-support deadline for Windows 10 was a big test for consumers and IT pros alike. The good news is everyone passed! The bad news is there's another crucial expiration date right around the corner. Every Windows PC designed and built since 2011 supports a feature called Secure Boot. This feature, which is on by default on new PCs sold with Windows 10 and Windows 11, acts as a gatekeeper that allows only trusted software to run at startup. If someone tries to tamper with the operating system or boot from an alternate device, Secure Boot blocks that attempt. All currently supported versions of Windows support Secure Boot, as do an increasing number of Linux distributions, including Ubuntu, Fedora, Linux Mint, OpenSUSE, and a host of others.

 

If you bought a PC in the last 15 years, it almost certainly contains Microsoft-issued KEK and UEFI CA certificates from 2011, which are slated to expire in June 2026. To update those certificates, you need access to the root of trust -- the Platform Key, which is managed by the hardware OEM.

 

If your PC was designed and built by a major OEM (Lenovo, HP, Dell, ASUS, Surface), and you are running a supported Windows version, you should receive the necessary update automatically.

 

According to Microsoft, "For most individuals and businesses that allow Microsoft to manage PC updates, the new certificates will be installed automatically through the regular monthly Windows update process, with no additional action required."

 

Those updates will arrive on almost all PCs running Windows 11 and on PCs running Windows 10 with an Extended Security Updates subscription. You might need a separate firmware update from the PC maker to allow the updated certificates to install.

 

Microsoft says it will be delivering messages about the certificate update status in the Windows Security app.

 

For specialized computers, such as servers and IoT devices, you might need to download and install an update from the device maker.

 

What happens if I don't update those certificates?

According to Microsoft, "When the 2011 CAs expire, Windows devices that do not have new 2023 certificates can no longer receive security fixes for pre-boot components, compromising Windows boot security.... Without updates, the Secure Boot-enabled Windows devices risk not receiving security updates or trusting new boot loaders, which will compromise both serviceability and security."

 

https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/topic/windows-secure-boot-certificate-expiration-and-ca-updates-7ff40d33-95dc-4c3c-8725-a9b95457578e

Windows Secure Boot certificate expiration and CA updates1.docx

Windows Secure Boot certificate expiration and CA updates

The impact of Secure Boot certificate expiration

 

Microsoft is updating the Secure Boot certificates originally issued in 2011 to ensure Windows devices continue to verify trusted boot software. These older certificates begin expiring in June 2026. Devices that haven’t received the newer 2023 certificates will continue to start and operate normally, and standard Windows updates will continue to install. However, these devices will no longer be able to receive new security protections for the early boot process, including updates to Windows Boot Manager, Secure Boot databases, revocation lists, or mitigations for newly discovered boot level vulnerabilities.

Over time, this limits the device’s protection against emerging threats and may affect scenarios that rely on Secure Boot trust, such as BitLocker hardening or third-party bootloaders. Most Windows devices will receive the updated certificates automatically, and many OEMs provide firmware updates when needed. Keeping your device current with these updates helps ensures it can continue receiving the full set of security protections that Secure Boot is designed to provide.

Windows Secure Boot certificate expiration and CA updates

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Windows Secure Boot certificate expiration and CA updates

What is Secure Boot?

Secure Boot is a security feature in Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) based firmware that helps ensure that only trusted software runs during a device's boot (start) sequence. It works by verifying the digital signature of pre-boot software against a set of trusted digital certificates (also known as certificate authority or CA) stored in the device's firmware. As an industry standard, UEFI Secure Boot defines how platform firmware manages the certificates, authenticates firmware, and how the operating system (OS) interfaces with this process. For more details on UEFI and Secure Boot, please see Secure boot.

Secure Boot was first introduced in Windows 8 to protect against the emerging pre-boot malware (also known as a bootkit) threat at that time. As part of platform initialization, Secure Boot authenticates firmware modules before execution. These modules include UEFI firmware drivers (such as Option ROMs), boot loaders, and applications. As the final step of the Secure Boot process, the firmware verifies if Secure Boot trusts the boot loader. Then, the firmware passes control to the boot loader, which in turn verifies, loads into memory, and starts the Windows OS.

Secure Boot defines trusted code through a firmware policy set during manufacturing. Changes to this policy, such as adding or revoking certificates, are controlled by a hierarchy of keys. This hierarchy starts with the Platform Key (PK), typically owned by the hardware manufacturer, followed by the Key Enrollment Key (KEK) (also known as Key Exchange Key), which may include a Microsoft KEK and other OEM KEKs. The Allowed Signature Database (DB) and the Disallowed Signature Database (DBX) determine which code can run in the UEFI environment before the OS starts. The DB includes certificates managed by Microsoft and the OEM, while the DBX is updated by Microsoft with the latest revocations. Any entity with a KEK can update the DB and DBX.